WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW DRAFT

Preparing to write the literature review is a complex process that includes reading and analyzing the research data found in numerous databases.  Along the process, notes and summary tables continue to add information to what would hopefully become a literature review.  Galvan, (2014) recommends we should consider our purpose and voice before beginning to write (p. 73).  The first step towards finding our voice could be a simple question, what is our purpose in writing this literature review.  Perhaps for some of us is a simple assignment but for many others it could even mean getting their research published in a well-respected journal.  But whichever our goal is, it is important to have into consideration the audience we intent to write this review for to ensure we meet  their expectations.

Upon identifying the reason for writing our literature review as well as the audience we are delivering the final product to it is important to decide the voice -or writing style- we will be using to deliver our review.  In this particular case, I will use a formal traditional voice as this literature review will be written within an academic context.  A very important point we need to have into consideration is that as writers, we need to focus on the reader’s attention rather than on our own to avoid distracting them from the actual content of the literature review.

            Reevaluating the research data collected is essential in order to determine the direction of the literature review, particularly by establishing a relationship between the scholastic articles and notes we were able to obtain.  For this purpose, we can prepare a topic outline that will help us to present our argument or thesis.   Galvan, (2014) suggests we should develop a traceable narrative that demonstrates that the line of argumentation is worthwhile and justified (p. 74). 

            For this literature review I created an outlined that allowed me to put my thesis on a roadmap format.  The central idea or start point of the roadmap was my argument: “Is Generation Y – “Millennial” – changing corporate America’s culture?”.  I followed my introduction with a review of the relevant areas of the research literature obtained, followed by the methodological issues relevant in the research process.  I finalized the outline with a summary, implications and discussion of suggestions for future research and conclusions in reference to the introduction addressed at the beginning of the outline.

            Comparing my first draft with the topic outline prepared I realize that although they are similar they don’t match 100%.  My original draft lacks definition and it was missing important points such as a more formal introduction of who is the population group – Generation Y – we are analyzing, and the different areas this group is impacting corporate America’s culture.  The variation did affect the path of the literature review as I was able to narrow down the specific areas affected and that are changing the corporate culture and I focused my research on those specific points. The outline also made me realize the implications of the review.  For example, I found that it lacks well-developed theoretical models of attitudes and decision-making.  On the other hand, I was able to realize that the current survey data is limited in scope and it might need a more sophisticated research and data-analysis techniques.

            One of the most important values I found in the outline is the fact that it allowed me to identify the different topics of research based on the areas Millennials affect the corporate culture.  In order to be able to transition from one topic to the other Galvan, (2014)  suggests using strategic transitional phrases. For instance, the author recommends using transitions to “provide readers with textual clues that mark the progression of a discussion, such as when you begin paragraphs with First, Second, and Third to mark the development of three related points” (p. 97).  Another way to signalize the transition is with the use of subheadings.  For example, while adressing “Millennial” talent recruitment practices it is imperative to talk about methods of recruitment as well as the compensation packages or benefits, both important factors to attract and retain Millenials.  Using subheadings and placing them strategically to transition from one recruitment technique to the other and allow my literature review to advance from one argument to the next allowing the readers to follow my research and thesis in discussion.

            Overall, the outline and the roadmap I was able to develop have been key factors in the direction the literature review has taken.  On the other hand, Galvan’s recommendations to writing a coherent essay will allow my audience to transition throughout the topics and  research data I am presenting  in my literature review.

REFERENCE

Galvan, J. L. (2014). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (6th ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak.

Original Reports of Empirical Research

Empirical Research reports are primary sources of information that provide detailed information on the methodology used by the authors as well as an in-depth description of their findings (Galvan, 2014).  In a simple way, we can say that empirical research is the why, whom, how and when of research.  According to Galvan, (2014) the empirical research refers to systematic observation as the authors decide the subject of observation as well as the methods to be used on certain specific characteristics of the study.  Although empirical research might be the foundation of any science, we must use caution when interpreting their results since “empirical research is inherently flawed” (Galvan, 2014, p.1).  Furthermore, the author explains there are three major issues that arise in most empirical studies:  sampling, measurement and problem identification (P. 1-2).

In order to better understand these issues we will review an original empirical research study written by Jean M. Twenge, (2010):  “A Review of the Empirical Evidence on Generational Differences in Work Attitudes” published by the Journal of Business Psychology.   The purpose of the study, according to the author, was to review the evidence for generational differences in work values from time-lag and cross-sectional studies.  The results, will give  managers and others a clearer picture of how to recruit, retain, and motivate the members of today’s multigenerational workplace.

Despite the considerable amount of data obtained, Twenge shares his concern about the report sampling to be a major potential issue.  He further explains that one of the biggest challenges in research on generational differences is the lack of a workable time machine. Twenge, (2010) adds that “most studies on generational differences in work values are cross-sectional, with data on workers of different ages collected at one point in time” (p. 202).  Therefore, the results presented by the study might be unrepresentative of the population  originally targeted for the study.  For example, the volunteer programs implemented by many corporations are based on the idea that Millennials are more altruistic and have a greater desire than GenX and the Boomers did to help others and do work that is worthwhile to society. However, the truth of this assumption has not been verified by, for example, examining generational differences in altruistic work values (p.211).  Without including these particular groups in the sampling, results could be bias or simply flawed.

Twenge, (2010) identifies a second issue with the study as he finds there are obvious measurement problems.   The author recommends time-lag studies, which examine people of the same age at different points in time, to be the most reliable design for determining generational differences.  Excluding any of the variables required to obtain reliable results would simply alter the overall results of the study.  Another important factor to have into consideration , is the response rate from the surveys.  Twenge, (2010) referenced from Smola and Sutton (2002) comparing responses of a 1999 sample of workers in the U.S. to those of a 1974 sample on some of the same questions. The author confirms that the 1999 sample had only an 8% response rate, which may have biased the results. Twenge added that “only comparisons on individual items were possible, as the scale total means from the 1974 data were not available; nor were the standard deviations for individual items” (p.202).  As researchers, we should be aware of potential measurement issues.  According to Galvan (2014) “a reviewer needs to consider the possibility of measurement error” (p.2).

            The researcher did an excellent job examining the generational differences in work attitudes along with work ethic, work Centrality, and Leisure, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Values, Job Satisfaction and Intention to Leave.  It was evident that the data collected from several studies found by the author was strategically analyzed by Twenge and upon summarizing the most important findings he  proposed solutions for recruitment, talent retention, and employee motivation for members of today’s multigenerational workplace.  For example, Twenge, (2010) concluded that most studies consistently find that GenX, especially GenMe, displayed weaker work ethics with a tendency to value leisure, and seek more freedom and work-life balance than Boomers.   A vary interesting finding revealed that GenMe are not higher in altruistic work values than previous generations. Therefore, programs offering time off work for volunteering or recruiting programs emphasizing helping others while working may be effective for today’s young workers, but no more so than they are or were for workers of other generations.  The most impacting data shared was on job satisfaction.  The author explained that job-hopping and commitment to the organization surprisingly showed GenMe to be more satisfied with their jobs than any other generation:  “ There may be a discrepancy between initial intentions and behaviors; when presented with other opportunities, GenX and GenMe seem to be eager to embrace them” (Twenge, 2010, p. 206).  As a general recommendation, the author explained that GenMe seems to like their jobs and look forward to a long tenure.  However, this attitude may shift if  better opportunities arise.

            Overalls, we might say that besides the expected flaws form the data collection process and the sampling issues potentially producing bias results in certain areas studied, the research made some important contributions.  For example, no previous review has summarized all of the available studies examining generational differences in work values allowing us to have a more rounded picture of the actual generational differences in work attitudes, how they affect tenure and the potential measurements management can take based on the author’s findings and recommendations.

REFERENCES

Galvan, J. L. (2014). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (6th ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak.

Smola, K. W., & Sutton, C. D. (2002). Generational differences: Revisiting generational work values for the new millennium.  Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 363–382.

Twenge, J.M. (2010).  A Review of the Empirical Evidence on Generational Differences in Work Attitudes.  Journal of Business Psychology, 201-210.  doi:10.1007/s10869-010-9165-6

Self-Assessment: Research Writing Survey

           Feeling confident about your research writing skills related to the writing process is key to obtaining a credible research paper.  While a good story can help us remember things, properly using statistical evidence could be a lot more persuasive than simply telling a story.  Developing research writing skills might not come easy for many of us but the good news is that this is a skill that can be developed – and even mastered - through practice.   Following are some key questions or subjects you can review to assess your knowledge.

For example, many of us can see a research paper assigned in a course as a burden.  However, switching perspective will allow us to view it as a unique opportunity to learn and further develop our research writing skills.  If you are in the group of students who have felt that burden, rest assured you are not alone.  Many of us have at one point been there.  As a college professor,  I can see research as a great opportunity for my students to learn.  As a student in a doctoral program, although challenging at times, I find that research writing has allowed me to obtain clarity to thinking while strengthening my knowledge.  During the research process, I have also found the opportunity to obtain different points of view allowing me to develop new ideas supported by scholastic papers in reference to that particular subject I am researching.  In his book Using Sources Effectively author Robert Harry, (2014) explains “research involves the collection and organization of ideas and thoughts, the analysis of statements and evidence, and the comparing and contrasting of conflicting claims” (p.2).  It is also important to note that the research process allows students to develop writing skills, a great competence required to work effectively in future assignments.   

One of the most important skills we need to develop is the ability to use supporting material such as quotations, examples, research, etc.  Your confidence in your ability to use them can effectively strengthen your ideas in a paper.  Although APA style could be tricky it is imperative to support the material with the proper quotations.  Supporting material is particularly important to me because it provides context to my research, which is crucial to subject interpretation while it also allows the reader to follow up on any specific subject or author should they have an interest to further research.  Harris, (2014) explained, “the proper understanding of events and thought processes requires knowledge of the surrounding information environment” (p.3).  Rest assured that your ability to utilize supporting material continues to increase as you do more research.  My experience has proven that it is an ongoing learning process that we can master as we further advance in our research activities.

Perhaps one of the trickiest skills in research writing is paraphrasing. The proper use of the sources we obtain for our research paper is crucial in order for us to be able to deliver a paper that is considered a serious research worth reading.  For this reason, it is important to introduce the ideas and concepts clearly, and appropriately in order to show the reader we have taken the required time to do the research while showing the familiarity and engagement obtained in the process.  Harris, (2014) added “in order to take your ideas seriously, your reader must come to believe that you are neither gullible nor sloppy in the way you use information” (P.8).  When paraphrasing, we must be extremely careful to ensure capturing the original idea from the author avoiding biases while at the same time properly use it to support your own ideas.

You might be asking yourself, how can I master the art of research writing?  To start, you must obtain some kind of formal training.  For example, in my case, I obtained my first college degree in the 80’s when there were basically no rules or laws for plagiarism.  This made it extremely difficult for me when I was assigned my first research paper - just a few years ago - during my graduate program.  However, attending a few APA seminars and reading the plagiarism information provided by the university allowed me to become familiar with the subject and I was able to understand the importance of properly citing the work and ideas others have shared.

If you find plagiarism to be a difficult subject to address, one of the most challenging items we can encounter in writing a research paper might be incorporating sources that conflict with the central argument or idea I am researching.  For example, during a recent literature review assignment I found it to be extremely challenging to find sources that were not in conflict with the central idea.  I attribute this challenge to the lack of time that I, as many of you might have, given our busy work schedules.  Finding the appropriate literature required for our research requires time and the proper organization of ideas supported by an outline of the subjects we want to research.   

Before I close this blog we need to address a subject many of us avoid – unintentional plagiarism.  How confident do you feel about knowing the rules for using sources well enough to avoid unintentional plagiarism? Well, I recently did a self-assessment that allowed me to realize that although I understand what is plagiarism I could easily unintentionally fall into it.  I strongly believe that learning more about this subject is crucial, given the many rules that apply to it.  Sometimes when paraphrasing, I question the appropriate use of the source but it is hard to confirm whether it is considered to be plagiarism.   When in doubt, I use four simple rules you can also find valuable for your research writing:

§  Use as many sources as possible to avoid using somebody else’s ideas in your writing.

§  Whenever possible, use direct quotes and when paraphrasing, don’t forget to mention the source.

§  Avoid large quotes as you might fall into "fair use" standards – any copying of copyrighted material done for a limited and “transformative” purpose, such as to comment upon, criticize, or parody a copyrighted work. Such uses can be done without permission from the copyright owner” (Cornell, 2016).

§  As long as original, bring your own thoughts into the writing.  Sharing your ideas or personal thoughts on the subject matter of research will help you avoid unintentional plagiarism while giving your paper an undeniable touch of originality.

Cornell (2016).  Copy right and Fair Use:  “What is Fair Use?”  retrieved from http://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/what-is-fair-use/

HARRIS, R. A. (2014). USING SOURCES EFFECTIVELY: Strengthening your writing and avoiding plagiarism. S.l.: ROUTLEDGE.

US Copyright (2016).  U.S. Copyright Office Fair Use Index.  Retrieved from http://www.copyright.gov/fair-use/